Fig. 4

Simulation outcomes of cardiac models that can be visualized in different dimensions: (1) 3D FSI model shows vortex formation in LV outflow tract view with the 3D vortex is visualized by the magenta isosurface and the color map represents velocity magnitude of the velocity streamline (m/s) adopted from [71]; 3D electromechanical finite element model displays end-systolic fiber strain and stress distributions at the LV subendocardium adopted from [73]; (2) 2D axisymmetric LV model demonstrates strain distributions through the heart wall; (3) 0D time-varying LV elastance model illustrates a ventricular pressure–volume relationship [72]