Table 2 A decade of literature on the utilization of the EStim system and their comprehensive parameters
Tissue or cell | Electrical Type | Intensity | Pulse | Frequency | Duration | Pulse width | Wave form | Outcomes | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rat (L3 and L4 dorsal root ganglions) | Current stimulation (DC) | 4 V/cm | Yes | Unmentioned | 20 min/day; last for 56 days | 500 μs | Square | Accelerated femoral osteoporotic fracture healing | [157] |
Sheep (pelvic limb) | Current stimulation (AC) | 1500 μA | yes | 60 kHz | 12 h/day, last for 30 days | 40 ms | Unmentioned | Accelerated fracture healing | [199] |
Sheep (dental implant–bone interface) | Current stimulation (DC) | 7.5 μA | No | – | 6 h/day, last for 84 days | – | – | No detectable improvement | [200] |
Human (mesenchymal stem cells) | Capacitive coupling | 1–2 V/cm | No | – | Continuous stimulation, last for 14 days | – | – | Osteogenic differentiation and increased calcium deposition | [194] |
Rat (hindlimb skeletal muscle) | Current stimulation | 1.5 V | Yes | 40 Hz | 60 min/day, 5 days/week, last for 28 days | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | Reduced muscle atrophy | [201] |
Human (chondrocytes) | Capacitive coupling | 2–3.5 V/cm | Yes | 1 kHz | 45 min × 3 times /day, last for 7 days | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | Increased genes expressions of collagen type II and aggrecan | [202] |
Human (calvarial osteoblasts) | Capacitive coupling | 20 mV/cm | Yes | 60 kHz | 1 h | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | Increased genes expressions of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP)-2 and -4, TGF-β1,—β2 and -β3, fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-2, osteocalcin (BGP) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) | [203] |
Human (mesenchymal stem cells) | Current stimulation (DC) | 1 V/cm | No | – | 10 min/day, last for 14 days | – | – | Early osteogenesis in hMSCs; increased reactive oxygen species | [198] |
Current stimulation (AC) | 1 V/cm | Yes | 10 Hz | 10 min/day, last for 14 days | 100 ms | Square | Late osteogenesis | ||
Mouse (bone marrow-derived macrophages) | Current stimulation (AC) | 0.5 V | Yes | 500 Hz | 6 h/day, last for 3 days | Unmentioned | Square | M1 polarization | [197] |
Current stimulation (AC) | 0.5 V | Yes | 500 Hz | 6 h/day, last for 3 days | Unmentioned | Sinusoidal | M2 polarization | ||
Human (chondrocytes) | Current stimulation (DC) | 1.5 V | No | – | 1.5 h/day | – | – | Early late osteogenesis | [167] |
Human (dermal fibroblasts) | Capacitive coupling | 54 V/cm | Yes | 60 Hz | 2 h/day | 100 μs | Unmentioned | Increased proliferation and migration | [175] |
Human (keratinocytes) | Capacitive coupling | 54 V/cm | Yes | 60 Hz | 2 h/day | 100 μs | Unmentioned | Increased proliferation and migration | |
Mouse (skin wound) | Capacitive coupling | 54 V/cm | Yes | 60 Hz | 2 h/day | 100 μs | Unmentioned | Accelerated wound healing | |
Mouse | Inductive coupling (PEMF) | 146.7 Gauss | Yes | 75 Hz | Continuous stimulation, last for 5 days | – | Unmentioned | inhibition of inflammatory cytokines | [192] |
Human (teared supraspinatus tendon) | Inductive coupling (PEMF) | 25 Gauss | Yes | 50 Hz | 25 min/day, 5 days/week, last for 14 days | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | No detectable improvement | [204] |
Mouse (swelled paws) | Inductive coupling (PEMF) | 145 Gauss | Yes | 10 Hz | Continuous stimulation, last for 32 days | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | Reduced local inflammatory cytokines and bone destruction | [193] |
Rat (osteochondral defect) | Inductive coupling (PEMF) | Unmentioned | Yes | Unmentioned | 3 h/day, last for 14 days | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | Chondrogenesis and cell hypertrophy via ERK and p38 MAPK pathways | [205] |
Mouse (melanoma B16F10) | Inductive coupling (PEMF) | 400 A | Yes | 80 Hz | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | Electroporation; Enhanced uptake of platinum | [206] |
Rat (cardiac tissues) | Current stimulation (AC) | 5 V | Yes | 1 Hz | 1 h/day, last for 3 days | 10 μs | Square | Increased oxygen consumption and membrane permeability; Decreased contraction frequencies | [196] |
Human (mesenchymal stem cells) | Capacitive coupling | 1 V/cm | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | 2 h/day, last for 21 days | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | Osteogenesis | [207] |
Human (palatal wound) | Current stimulation (AC) | 100 μA | Yes | 9 kHz | 30 s/day, last for 3 days | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | Positive effect on early wound closure; reduced inflammatory cytokines | [208] |
Mouse (skin wound) | Capacitive coupling | 53 V/m | Yes | Unmentioned | Continuous stimulation, last for 12 days | Unmentioned | Unmentioned | Reduced scarring, enhanced collagen synthesis; increased angiogenesis | [195] |