Table 2 Applications of 3D anatomical models to treating cardiovascular diseases

Congenital heart disease

 Atrial septal defect [33, 53, 54]

PLA, resin, polyurethane filament

FDM SLA

Preoperative evaluation; transcatheter device closure simulation

 Ventricular septal defect [55,56,57,58]

PLA, gypsum, cyanoacrylate

FDM

Congenital heart disease education for medical students; transcatheter device closure simulation

 Complex congenital heart disease: e.g., endocardial cushion defect [54, 59], double-outlet right ventricle [56, 60,61,62]

PLA, resin, VeroMagenta

FDM SLA

Improve understanding of congenital heart disease; surgical management

Heart valve disease

 Mitral valve disease [63,64,65]

PLA, ABS

FDM

Surgical management

 Tricuspid valve disease [66]

ABS

FDM

Clinical decision-making; surgical planning; education

 Aortic valve disease [67, 68]

Resin, PLA

FDM SLA

Surgical planning and training

Others

 Arterial aneurysm [69]

Resin

SLA

Preoperative planning; postoperative evaluation